Taught as part of Oxford University's Visual, Material and Museum Anthropology (VMMA) programme, the 'Provenance Research and the Ethnographic Archive' course provides students with an opportunity to conduct original research on an object, photograph, sound recording or film from the Pitt Rivers Museum's collections. In addition to a full research report, students are invited to write a blog post on their discoveries. Here Liangyu Gao (VMMA 2023-2024) writes about his choice:
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| Figure 1. Pair of lotus shoes 'worn by a Chinese lady with 'golden lily' feet'. Copyright Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford (1927.7.6.1-.2) |
Group: Footgear Division: Shoes
Class: for dist. foot Number: 1927.7.6
Cotton shoes for artificially deformed feet, with the toe and side upper stitched onto the heel back and the cotton covered sole deeper at the heel than at the pointed toe, the heel having a piece of leather sewn to it. There is a cotton loop sewn from the heel back to the side upper on both sides. The toe is decorated with embroidery on silk ribbon and gold thread sewn on. The edge is bound with red binding. There is a gold thread pattern on the sides. Length 13 cm down heel back 10 cm
People: Chinese ladies ‘golden lily’ Locality: China
How Acquired: Pres by H. Balfour, 1927
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| Figure 2. Detailed Footwear catalogue card for 1927.7.6 Copyright Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford |
Utilizing the photographic light box supplied by the PRM, I captured high-resolution images of the objects from various angles. Repeated observations of the objects and images indicated that many of the shoes displayed signs of wear and tear, suggesting prolonged use:
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| Figure 3. Photographs showing different angles of the shoes, taken on 7 Feb 2024 Copyright Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford (1927.7.6.1-.2) |
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| Figure 4. Woman embroidering, China (Qing Dynasty), about 1790, Watercolour on paper, 35 x 42 cm. Copyright Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Museum no. D.66-1898 |
The PRM Object Catalogue lists the materials used in shoe production as cotton, animal leather, silk, ribbon textile, and metallic yarn. Luo (2007) has indicated through extensive research that in addition to the commonly mentioned materials, wood was frequently used to reinforce the heels of low-topped lotus shoes, with either white or coloured cloth then wrapped around it. Despite close examination revealing traces of extruded creases from extended wear at the bottom of the shoe, it remains uncertain whether the heel is completely free of wood. As cotton textiles and wood are less flexible and malleable, shoes of 13cm in length were undoubtedly a great constraint for adult women. This would have greatly affected their daily activities and limited their work choices.
Footbinding culture has been a long-standing practice in China for almost a millennium. In the ancient agricultural society, where men were primarily responsible for ploughing and women for weaving, textile processing and production took place in the home (Ke, 2013). Consequently, the techniques and materials employed in various historical periods and geographical areas exhibit significant variations, making it difficult to determine the specific time and location of shoe production accurately. However, the basic techniques of shoemaking remain the same: 1) cut the paper pattern, 2) select upper fabric, 3) transfer the embroidery pattern to the fabric, 4) embroider, 5) add lining and finish top, 6) make sole and heel, 7) stitch upper to bottom, 8) finish (Ko, 2001). Additionally, during the Ming and Qing dynasties, cloud patterns were commonly featured as knitted embroidery on clothing. Prior to these periods, the patterns were primarily created by hammering cloud nail hemp dots (Wu, 2009). Based on this historical usage of embroidery techniques, it is possible that the shoes were crafted during the Ming and Qing dynasties.
The PRM has documented this pair of lotus shoes from China as an addition to the museum’s collection in 1927. The individual who donated the collection was Henry Balfour, who served as the curator of the museum during that period. PRM (2011) states that Balfour donated over 15,000 items to the PRM collection as a benefactor. The role of the field collector in the records is labelled ‘Henry Balfour uncertain’. According to the PRM’s biographical records related to Balfour, and Alfred Cort Haddon’s brief biographical account from 1940, there is no documented evidence of Balfour having traveled to China. The precise provenance of the shoes and the context of their collection remain largely unconfirmed.
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| Figure 5. Portrait of Henry Balfour, Probably taken in the 1910s. Copyright Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford (detail of 1998.356.17.1) |
I entered ‘shoes’, ‘china’ into the PRM online collection search page and applied filters, identifying a total of 13 pairs of shoes associated with lotus shoes or footbinding. The shoes with the inventory numbers 1935.36.40.1-2 are recorded as having been collected in China by Sir Stephen Montagu Burrows (1856-1935). According to the museum’s records, Burrows primarily worked in what was then the British colony of Ceylon. He began his service in 1880 and was stationed at the Kandy Kachcheri, where he served for 26 years. In 1944, three pairs of similar shoes were donated to the Museum, with Surgeon-General Duncan MacPherson (1812-1867) identified as the field collector. He was stationed in China with the 37th Grenadiers during 1840 and 1842, following the British initiation of the Opium War against China. The collection of these shoes is dated to his period of service in China.
Indeed, Western collectors had already been interested in China in the early 19th century and even earlier. Due to the limited direct knowledge of China in Europe, Chinese art and cultural objects were predominantly transported back to Europe by traders, missionaries, and explorers. Furthermore, world fairs acted as significant venues where dealers and collectors acquired Chinese artifacts (Rujivacharakul 2011).
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| Figure 6. Pair of lotus shoes, given to Duncan MacPherson by the wearer in 1841. Copyright Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford (1944.9.63.1-.2) |
Following the conclusion of the two Opium Wars, the British Navy further solidified its colonial presence in Chinese territories (Wahed, 2016). The significant loss of cultural relics during this era has garnered considerable attention in contemporary Chinese society. In 2002, the China Foundation for the Development of Social Culture (CFDSC) coined the term ‘Chinese cultural relics lost overseas’, referring to artifacts illicitly or unethically removed between 1840 and 1949, a period during which imperialist powers exerted control over China’s political, economic, military, and cultural spheres (Zhang and Wang, 2009; Li, 2021). The most widely publicised instance is the loss of cultural artefacts from the Old Summer Palace, attributed largely to colonialism and wars of aggression (Fang, 2009). Although the unequal relationship between coloniser and colonised facilitated such widespread expropriation, it is also acknowledged that some of the transactions were legal, as numerous local residents willingly engaged in this trading behaviour (Su, 2003).
Context
While the precise origin of footbinding is somewhat debated, scholars generally agree that it began during the Song Dynasty (Gao, 1995). The earliest documented reference to the origin of footbinding is found in Mozhuang Manlu, authored by the Song Dynasty scholar Zhang Bangji in 1184. It states that ‘footbinding for women began in recent times, and none of the previous books have recorded the source....’. References to the origins of footbinding before Zhang Bangji are mainly rooted in myths, poems, and rumors about women with small feet likened to lotus flowers (Ko, 2005).
Although there are different voices on the origin narratives, there is a high degree of agreement among relevant scholars on the context of the origin, which is that the practice began in the highest ruling class of the court and was a symbol of the luxury of the royal court (Levy, 1972). This ethnic and class barrier influenced the practice for centuries. It wasn’t until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that peasant daughters began to adopt footbinding. By the time of the Ming and Qing dynasties, footbinding had become a widespread social practice among Han women. At that time, women with footbinding were considered to have a higher marriage value, and the practice was therefore widely recognised by society (Yao, 1991). The prohibition of foot-binding was noted as early as the Qing Dynasty, but its enforcement had minimal impact until it was rigorously implemented following the establishment of the Republic of China.
Footbinding is typically practiced on young girls, usually between the ages of three and six. Gao (1995) provides a detailed description of this process in A History of footbinding. In the traditional practice of footbinding, the girl’s mother or another female elder would fold the child’s four smaller toes onto the soles of her feet, leaving only the big toes unaltered. The feet would then be tightly wrapped with tough white cotton cloth or another material to maintain this configuration. Girls are required to walk through pain to break their metatarsal bones and bend and elevate the arch of their feet to conform to prevailing beauty standards. This process may continue for several years until the shape of the girl’s foot is permanently fixed and the size of the foot no longer changes in adulthood. Particularly, the shape and size of the so-called ‘lotus foot’ are strictly regulated, with a foot smaller than three inches being considered a symbol of ideal beauty, called ‘three-inch golden lotus’ (Chou, 2009). Footbinding imposes a lifelong disability on women, bringing with it a host of severe medical complications. Infections and fractures are common during the footbinding process, and women may later experience paralysis, necrosis, and decay of muscle tissues—all harsh realities for those who have undergone this practice (Yang, 2004).
Liangyu Gao
MSc Visual, Material, and Museum Anthropology, 2023-2024
University of Oxford
Bibliography
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